Methods for predicting age and identifying agents that induce or inhibit premature aging

ABSTRACT

The invention provides for methods for predicting age of a subject based on the epigenome of the subject.

This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. P50GM085764 and R01E5014811 awarded by NIH and Grant Nos. EY014428, EY018660. EY019270 and EY021374 awarded by NEI/NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention.

Throughout this application various publications are referenced. The disclosures of these publications in their entireties are hereby incorporated by reference into this application in order to more fully describe the state of the art to which this invention pertains.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Not everyone ages in the same manner. It is well known that women tend to live longer than men, and lifestyle choices such as smoking and physical fitness can hasten or delay the aging process (Steven N., 2006; Blair et al., 1989). These observations have led to the search for molecular markers of age which can be used to predict, monitor, and provide insight into age-associated physiological decline and disease. One such marker is telomere length, a molecular trait strongly correlated with age (Harley et al., 1990) which has been shown to have an accelerated rate of decay under environmental stress (Epel et al., 2004; Valdes et al.). Another marker is gene expression, especially for genes that function in metabolic and DNA repair pathways which are predictive of age across a range of different tissue types and organisms (Fraser et al., 2005; Zahn et al., 2007; de Magãlhies et al., 2009).

A growing body of research has reported associations between age and the state of the epigenome—the set of modifications to DNA other than changes in the primary nucleotide sequence (Fraga and Esteller, 2007). In particular, DNA methylation associates with chronological age over long time scales (Alisch et al., 2012; Christensen et al., 2009; Bollati et al., 2009; Boks et al., 2009; Rakyan et al., 2010; Bocklandt et al., 2011; Bell et al., 2012) and changes in methylation have been linked to complex age-associated diseases such as metabolic disease (Barres and Zierath, 2011) and cancer (Jones and Laird, 1999; Esteller, 2008). Studies have also observed a phenomenon dubbed “epigenetic drift”, whereby the DNA methylation marks in identical twins increasingly differ as a function of age (Fraga et al., 2005; Boks et al., 2009). Thus, the idea of the epigenome as a fixed imprint is giving way to the model of the epigenome as a dynamic landscape that reflects a variety of chronological changes. The current challenge is to determine whether these changes can be systematically described and modeled to detect different rates of human aging, and to tie these rates to related clinical or environmental variables.

The mechanisms that drive changes in the aging methylome are not well understood, although they have been attributed to at least two underlying factors (Vijg and Campisi, 2008; Fraga et al., 2005). First, it is possible that environmental exposure will over time activate cellular programs associated with consistent and predictable changes in the epigenome. For example, stress has been shown to alter gene expression patterns through specific changes in DNA methylation (Murgatroyd et al., 2009). Alternatively, spontaneous epigenetic changes may occur with or without environmental stress, leading to fundamentally unpredictable differences in the epigenome between aging individuals. Spontaneous changes may be caused by chemical agents that disrupt DNA methyl groups or through errors in copying methylation states during DNA replication. Both mechanisms lead to differences between the methylomes of aging individuals, suggesting that quantitative measurements of methylome states may identify factors involved with slowed or accelerated rates of aging.

To better understand how the methylome ages and to determine whether human aging rates can be quantified and compared, we initiated a project to perform genome-wide methylomic profiling of a large cohort of individuals spanning a wide age range. Based on these findings, we constructed a predictive model of aging rate which we show is influenced by gender and specific genetic variants. These data help explain epigenetic drift and suggest that age-associated changes in the methylome lead to changes in transcriptional patterns over time. These findings were replicated in a second large cohort.

The ability to measure human aging from molecular profiles has practical implications in many fields, including disease prevention and treatment, forensics, and extension of life. Although chronological age has been linked to changes in DNA methylation, the methylome has not yet been used to measure and compare human aging rates. Here, we have created a quantitative model of aging using measurements at more than 450,000 CpG markers from the whole blood of 656 human individuals, aged 19 to 101. This model measures the rate at which an individual's methylome ages. Furthermore, we have discovered that differences in aging rates may explain epigenetic drift and are reflected in the transcriptome. Our discovery highlights specific components of the aging process and provides forensic methods, screening methods for agents retarding or accelerating aging, and methods for preventing and treating diseases.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides methods for predicting age of a subject based on the epigenome of the subject. In one embodiment, the method comprises (a) obtaining a biological sample of the subject; (b) determining the methylation status of a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject as shown in any of FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; and (c) comparing the methylation status of a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) of the subject with the methylation status of the same markers from an age correlated reference population so as to obtain a value or a range of values for the predicted age of the subject thereby predicting the age of a subject based on the epigenome of the subject.

The invention also provides for methods for identifying type of tissue for a biological sample from a subject with a known chronological age. In one embodiment, the method comprises (a) ascertaining the chronological age of a subject; (b) determining the AMAR of the subject from the biological sample by dividing the predicted age of a subject from the chronological age of the subject; (c) comparing to a reference standard relating AMAR to chronological age for various types of tissue; (d) determining which value from step (b) closely matches the AMAR in the reference standard for various types of tissue from step (c); and (e) based on the closest match in step (d), assigning the type of tissue for the biological sample, thereby identifying type of tissue for a biological sample from a subject with a known chronological age.

The invention further provides for methods for predicting age of a subject based on age-associated epigenetic modification affecting gene expression comprising: (a) obtaining a biological sample of the subject; (b) determining the expression of one or more gene(s) associated with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) whose expression changes with age; (c) comparing the expression of one or more gene(s) associated with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) whose expression changes with age with the expression of the same gene(s) from an age correlated reference population; and (d) obtaining a value or range of values for the predicted age of the subject; wherein comparing the expression of one or more gene(s) associated with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) whose expression changes with age with the expression of the same gene(s) from an age correlated reference population comprises any statistical method, multivariate regression method, linear regression analysis, tabular method, or graphical method used to predict the age of a subject based on expression of gene(s) associated with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) whose expression changes with age; thereby predicting age of a subject based on age-associated epigenetic modification affecting gene expression.

The invention also provides methods for predicting age of a tissue or organ of a subject based on the epigenome of the tissue or organ of the subject. In one embodiment, the method comprises (a) obtaining a biological sample of a tissue or organ from the subject; (b) determining the methylation status of a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; and (c) comparing the methylation status of the set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) of the subject with the methylation status of the same markers from an age-correlated reference population so as to obtain a value or a range of values for the predicted age of the tissue or organ, thereby predicting the age of a tissue or organ of a subject based on the epigenome of the tissue or organ of the subject.

The invention also provides for a kit for determining age of a subject based on epigenetic modification of subject's genetic material comprising any age-associated epigenetic marker or markers as listed in FIG. 9, Table S3, Table S4 or Table S5.

The invention further provides for a kit for predicting age of a subject based on the epigenome of the subject utilizing the set of the age-associated epigenetic marker(s) provided in FIG. 9, Table S3, S4 and/or S5.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1. Global Data on the Aging Methylome. (A) A density plot of methylation fraction values for the marker cg16867657, separated by young (green) and old (blue) individuals. (B) A histogram of the age distribution for all individuals. (C) A heatmap of the age-associated methylation markers, sorted by the magnitude of association (regression coefficient). The individuals are ordered youngest to oldest. See also Figure S1 and Tables S1 and S2 for a specific example of an age-associated region and for annotation coincidence tables, respectively.

FIG. 2. Model Predictions and Clinical Variables. (A) A flow chart of the data (green boxes) and analyses (red ovals) used to generate aging predictions (blue boxes). (B) A comparison of predicted and actual ages for all individuals based on the aging model. (C) Out-of-sample predictions for individuals in the validation cohort. (D) Apparent methylomic aging rate (AMAR) for each individual, based on the aging model without clinical variables. The distribution of aging rates shows faster aging for men than women. A table of the markers used in the aging model is provided in Table S3. See also Figures S2 and S3, Table S3 and FIG. 9.

FIG. 3. Genetic Effects on Methylomic Aging. (A) We surveyed genomic variants for an association with age-associated methylation markers. Eight genetic variants, corresponding to 14 meQTLs, were chosen for validation. Of these, seven were significant in the validation cohort and two showed an association with AMAR. (B) A plot of the trend between the methylation marker cg27367526 (STEAP2) and age. The state of variant rs42663 (GTPBP10) causes an offset in this relationship. (C) A second example for cg18404041 and rs2230534 (ITIH1, NEK4). See also Table S4 for a table of confirmed genetic associations.

FIG. 4. Multitissue Support. (A) Predictions of age made by the full aging model on the TCGA control samples. There is a high correlation between chronological and predicted age, but each tissue has a different linear intercept and slope. (B) After adjusting the intercept and slope of each tissue, the error of the model is similar to that of the original whole-blood data. Age predictions made on cancer samples are presented in Figure S2. (C) Age predictions made on matched normal and tumor samples from TCGA. Predictions are adjusted for the linear offset of the parent tissue (breast, kidney, lung, or skin). (D) Tumor samples show a significant increase in AMAR. See also Figure S4 and Table S5.

FIG. 5. Age Associations for Methylation. Fraction and Deviance (A) Methylation fraction values for are shown for the marker cg24724428. Over any subset of the cohort, we consider two group methylation statistics: the mean and variance. Marker variance is a measure of the mean methylation deviance, which is defined as the squared difference between an individual's methylation fraction and their expected methylation fraction. (B) A density plot showing the change in mean methylation with age for the marker cg24724428. Young and old groups are based on the top and bottom 10%. (C) A histogram of the significance of association between the methylation fraction of all markers and age. p values are signed such that positive values represent an increase of methylation with age. Markers that exceeded the FDR<0.05 threshold are grouped into the most extreme bins. (D) A density plot showing the change in methylation deviance with age for the marker cg24724428. (E) A histogram, in the same form as (D), of the significance of association between the methylation deviance of all markers and age. Aging trends are mapped for CpG islands in Figure S3. See also Figure S5.

FIG. 6. Methylome-wide Trends with Age. (A) Aggregate regression lines for all methylation markers that increased with age (red) and decreased with age (blue). The darkest color represents the median regression line and the bounds represent the 25% and 75% quantile. Both increasing and decreasing markers trend toward moderate methylation fraction values. (B) An entropy aging rate was calculated as the mean Shannon entropy of age-associated methylation markers divided by chronological age. This was strongly associated with AMAR.

FIG. 7. Transcription Aging Model. (A) We built an aging model using mRNA expression data for genes that showed an aging trend in the methylome. Its standard error (RMSE=7.22 years) is increased due to the rounding of ages to the nearest 5 year interval in the data set. (B) Similar to the methylome, the transcriptome shows an increased aging rate for men as compared to women (p<10⁻⁴). See also Table S6 and Table S7.

FIG. 8 shows the model of biological age.

FIG. 9 is a collection of FIGS. 9A (9A through 9A-7), 9B (9B through 9B-7), 9C (9C through 9C-7), 9D (9D through 9D-7) and 9E (9E through 9E-7) which are spreadsheets showing age-associated epigenetic markers, designated by “cg” prefix followed by a number (cg#), related to Table S3 in which each of the CpG dinucleotide so examined is embedded within the sequence shown in column entitled “Forward_Sequence” in the third subpanel of each series (i.e., FIG. 9 x-2, where “x” is A-E). For example, the dinucleotide of interest is bounded by brackets. Additional information may be found in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database with GEO accession number GPL13534 and Bibikova et al. Genomics, 2011, 98:288-95. The various subpanels of the spreadsheets should be assembled as shown below:

9A 9A-1 9A-2 9A-3 9A-4 9A-5 9A-6 9A-7 9B 9B-1 9B-2 9B-3 9B-4 9B-5 9B-6 9B-7 9C 9C-1 9C-2 9C-3 9C-4 9C-5 9C-6 9C-7 9D 9D-1 9D-2 9D-3 9D-4 9D-5 9D-6 9D-7 9E 9E-1 9E-2 9E-3 9E-4 9E-5 9E-6 9E-7

Figure S1. An example aging association map, related to FIG. 1

Age association levels for the gene Four and a Half LIM Domains 2 (FHL2). A strong aging association is shown for several markers (red: −log₁₀(p-value)) at a CpG island in the center of the gene, coincident with an internal promoter (black: average methylation fraction).

Figure S2. Apply the aging model to the Heyn et al. dataset, related to FIG. 2

We obtained methylation profiles from the Heyn et al. dataset and applied the age prediction model. Our model successfully separated old and young samples (black circles). In addition, we applied the aging model to the three samples in the Heyn et al. dataset which were measured using bisulfite sequencing rather than the bead-chip technology used for our data. Despite the differences in technology, the model successfully separated the young, middle-aged, and old samples (green dots).

Figure S3. Measuring the effects of batch-correlated variables, related to FIG. 2

The model covariates of ethnicity and diabetes status were highly correlated with batch variables, such that their effect on the aging process could not be determined. Nonetheless, we built separate models for the subgroups (A) European, (B) Hispanic, (C) Non-diabetic, and (D) Diabetic. Each model was used to predict the age of its complementary cohort. The results show a strong predictive power despite the covariate and/or batch effects.

Figure S4. Normal and tumor aging model predictions, related to FIG. 4

Aging models were built in matched normal and tumor samples using the model markers identified in the primary cohort. The aging rate (AMAR) of tumor samples predicted by normal tissue was found to be higher than expected (red, Wilcox test, P<10⁻²¹) and the aging rate of normal samples predicted by the tumor model was lower than expected (black, Wilcox test, P<10⁻¹⁷). The separation of the two aging rates was also highly significant (Wilcox test, P<10⁻²⁵).

Figure S5. A map of aging trends in CpG Islands, related to FIG. 5

(A) An aggregate genomic map of the methylation fraction for 27,176 CpG islands (black). The aging coefficient relating methylation fraction to age is shown in the same region (green). Color bars indicating the island and shore regions represent 75% confidence intervals. (B) A CpG island map showing methylation deviance (red) and the aging coefficient for deviance (green).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES Definitions

As used in this application, the biological age (bioage), chemical age, methylomic age and molecular age are equivalent or synonymous. The biological age is determined using a set of age-associated epigenetic markers of a subject or an organism. In the current invention, the biological age is determined from an analysis of the modification status of specific CpG dinucleotide and, in particular, e.g., the methylation status at the C-5 position of cytosine.

Chronological age is the actual age of a subject or organism. For animals and humans, chronological age may be based on the age calculated from the moment of conception or based on the age calculated from the time and date of birth. The chronological age of the cell, tissue or organ may be determined from the chronological age of the subject or organism from which the cell, tissue or organ is obtained, plus the duration of the cell, tissue or organ is placed in culture. Alternatively, in the case of the cell or tissue culture, the chronological age may be related to the total or accumulative time in culture or passage number.

As used in this application, the term “tissue” may be replaced with “cell,” or vice versa, for a biological sample.

The methylation marker as provided in Tables S3, S4 and S5 under the column “Marker” or “Methylation Marker,” provided in FIG. 9 under the column “ID” or “Name” in FIG. 9 x where “x” is A-E and discussed in the text with a “cg#” designation are age-associated epigenetic markers. The specific CpG dinucleotide within each epigenetic marker probed in the invention is provided in FIG. 9 under the heading “Forward_Sequence” and the specific CpG dinucleotide probed within brackets, i.e., [CG]. Additional sequence information for all “cg#” designation, such as in Tables S4 and S5 and in the text, may be obtained at the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, Md.) in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database with GEO accession number GPL13534.

The methylation markers as provided in FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and S5 were used in an Illumina's Infinium Methylation Assay using the HumanMethylation450 BeadChip. However, these age-associated epigenetic markers may be used in other assays outside of the Infinium Methylation Assay system, based on the sequence, homology, or normal association to sequence for each cg# provided in the invention.

Methods of the Invention

The invention provides for methods for predicting age of a subject based on the epigenome of the subject. The subject may be human, mammal, animal, plant, or any multicellular organism. Examples of suitable mammals include but are not limited human, monkey, ape, dog, cat, cow, horse, goat, pig, rabbit, mouse and rat. The age of a subject may be a chronological age or a molecular age, chemical age, methylomic age or biological age. The epigenome may be deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in which the DNA may be subjected to epigenetic modification. The epigenetic modification may be methylation of CpG residues. In one embodiment, the methylation is the covalent attachment of a methyl group at the carbon-5 (C-5) position of cytosine.

In one embodiment, the method comprises obtaining a biological sample of the subject. Additionally, the method comprises determining the methylation status of a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5. Further, the method comprises comparing the methylation status of a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) of the subject with the methylation status of the same markers from an age correlated reference population so as to obtain a value or a range of values for the predicted age of the subject, thereby predicting the age of a subject based on the epigenome of the subject.

In one embodiment, the method comprises use of a statistical method to compare the methylation status of a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) of the subject with the methylation status of the same markers from an age correlated reference population. Examples of suitable statistical methods include but are not limited to multivariate regression method, linear regression analysis, tabular method or graphical method comprises Elastic Net, Lasso regression method, ridge regression method, least-squares fit, binomial test, Shapiro-Wilk test, Grubb's statistics, Benjamini-Hochberg FDR, variance analysis, entropy statistics, and/or Shannon entropy. In a preferred embodiment, the statistical method comprises a multivariate regression algorithm or linear regression algorithm.

In accordance with the practice of the invention, determining the methylation status may comprise isolating genomic DNA or nuclear DNA from the sample, reacting the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA with one or more probe/agent (e.g., a chemical probe/agent) which differentially reacts with unmodified cytosine so that the cytosine is converted to uracil. The step may also comprise determining or analyzing the methylation status at the cytosine position (also referred to herein as the C position) of a CpG dinucleotide in the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA of the sample by detecting the presence of a cytosine or uracil. The presence of cytosine or uracil indicates the presence of a 5-methylcytosine or unmodified cytosine, respectively, in the original CpG dinucleotide. Alternatively, resistance to cleavage by a restriction enzyme may indicate the presence of 5-methylcytosine at the original CpG dinucleotide. Sensitivity to cleavage by the restriction enzyme may indicate presence of unmodified cytosine at the original CpG dinucleotide. Further, the step may further comprise determining the proportion of 5-methylcytosine or unmodified cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker; or alternatively, determining the ratio of 5-methyl-cytosine to unmodified cytosine or the ratio of unmodified cytosine to 5-methyl-cytosine cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker based on characterizing outcome of probing the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA.

In accordance with the practice of the invention, determining the methylation status may comprise isolating genomic DNA or nuclear DNA from the sample, incubating the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA with one or more restriction enzyme which recognizes a specific DNA sequence, is affected by a CpG dinucleotide, within or adjacent to the restriction enzyme recognition or cleavage site, and differentially cleaves the DNA based on the presence or absence of a methyl group at C-5 position of cytosine of the CpG dinucleotide. The step may also comprise determining or analyzing the methylation status at the C position of a CpG dinucleotide in the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA of the sample by its resistance to cleavage at a potential cleavage site by the restriction enzyme indicating presence of 5-methylcytosine at the original CpG dinucleotide within or adjacent to the restriction enzyme recognition or cleavage site. Sensitivity to cleavage by the restriction enzyme may indicate presence of unmodified cytosine. Further, the step may further comprise determining the proportion of 5-methylcytosine or unmodified cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker; or alternatively, determining the ratio of 5-methylcytosine to unmodified cytosine or the ratio of unmodified cytosine to 5-methylcytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker.

In accordance with the practice of the invention, the methylation status may be determined based on five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; ten or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; fifteen or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; twenty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; twenty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; thirty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; thirty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; forty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; forty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; fifty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; fifty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; sixty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; sixty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; or seventy or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5.

Further, in a preferred embodiment, the methylation status may be determined based on five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; ten or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifteen or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; twenty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; twenty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; thirty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; thirty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; forty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; forty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; sixty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; sixty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; or seventy or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3. For example, the set of markers having individual CpG residues subject to methylation of C-5 position of cytosine in the genome of a subject may comprise any one or more of the following methylation marker cg05652533 of Table S4, cg27367526 of Table S4, cg18404041 of Table S4, cg23606718 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5, cg16867657 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5, cg04474832 on chromosome 3 at position 52008487, cg05442902 on chromosome 22 at position 21369010, cg06493994 on chromosome 6 at position 25652602, cg09809672 on chromosome 1 at position 236557682, cg19722847 on chromosome 12 at position 30849114, cg22736354 on chromosome 6 at position 18122719, cg05652533 of Table S4, cg27367526 of Table S4, cg18404041 of Table S4, cg23606718 on chromosome 2 at position 131513927, and/or cg16867657 of chromosome 6 at position 11044877.

In one embodiment, the set of markers having individual CpG residues subject to methylation at C-5 position of cytosine in the genome of a subject may comprise methylation marker cg04474832 on chromosome 3 at position 52008487, cg05442902 on chromosome 22 at position 21369010, cg06493994 on chromosome 6 at position 25652602, cg09809672 on chromosome 1 at position 236557682, cg19722847 on chromosome 12 at position 30849114, and cg22736354 on chromosome 6 at position 18122719.

In another embodiment, the set of markers having individual CpG residues subject to methylation at C-5 position of cytosine in the genome of a subject may be any one or more of methylation marker cg20822990 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg04400972 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg16054275 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg03607117 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg20052760 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg16867657 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg06493994 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg06685111 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg00486113 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg20426994 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg14361627 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg08097417 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg07955995 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg22285878 of FIG. 9 or Table S3 and/or cg08540945 of FIG. 9 or Table S3.

In further embodiment, the set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) may be any one or more of methylation marker cg23606718 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5 and/or cg16867657 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5.

In accordance with the practice of the invention, the methods of the invention may be automated.

In accordance with the practice of the invention, the biological sample may be any of blood, lymphocyte, monocyte, neutrophil, basophil, eosinophil, myeloid lineage cell, lymphoid lineage cell, bone marrow, saliva, buccal swab, nasal swab, urine, fecal material, hair, breast tissue, ovarian tissue, uterine tissue, cervical tissue, prostate tissue, testicular tissue, brain tissue, neuronal cell, astrocyte, liver tissue, kidney, thyroid tissue, stomach tissue, intestine tissue, pancreatic tissue, vascular tissue, skin, lung tissue, bone tissue, cartilage, ligament, tendon, fat cells, muscle cells, neurons, astrocytes, cultured cells with different passage number, cancer/tumor cells, cancer/tumor tissue, normal cells, normal tissue, any tissue(s) or cell(s) with a nucleus containing genetic material, or genetic material in the form of DNA of a known or unknown subject.

The tumor or cancer cells may be derived from blood, lymph node, liver, brain, esophagus, trachea, stomach, intestine, pancreas, throat, tongue, bone, ovary, uterus, cervix, peritoneum, prostate, testes, breast, kidney, lung, or skin. The biological sample with tumor or cancer cells may be predicted to have an older predicted age of at least about 30% or 40% more than the biological sample without tumor or cancer cells.

In one embodiment, the age-associated epigenetic marker(s) comprises a CpG residue. The methylation at C-5 position of cytosine may vary with the chronological age of a species associated with the subject. For example, the species associated with the subject may be Homo sapiens.

In another embodiment, the set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) may comprise individual CpG residues subject to age-dependent methylation at C-5 position of cytosine in the genome of a subject. The set of markers may comprise about 70 distinct CpG residue-containing age-associated epigenetic markers. Additionally, the set of markers may comprise any one or more of markers as shown in FIG. 9, Table S3, Table S4 or Table S5.

For example, the set of age-associated markers may comprise five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; ten or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifteen or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; twenty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; twenty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; thirty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; thirty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; forty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; forty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; sixty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; sixty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; or seventy or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3.

In another embodiment, the set of age-associated markers may comprise five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in Table S5; ten or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in Table 55; fifteen or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in Table S5; twenty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in Table S5; twenty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in Table S5; thirty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in Table S5; thirty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in Table S5; forty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in Table S5; forty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in Table S5; or fifty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in Table S5.

Merely by way of example, the correlation between chronological age and predicted age may be at least about 80%, 90% or 91% with an error of less than about 5 years.

In yet another embodiment, the set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) may be any of methylation marker cg23606718 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5 and/or cg16867657 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5 and the biological sample with tumor or cancer cells may be predicted to have an older predicted age of at least about 30% or 40% more than the biological sample without tumor or cancer cells.

In an embodiment, a majority of the age-associated epigenetic markers in the epigenome of the subject may predict an older age for a biological sample with tumor than biological sample of the same type without tumor. Similarly, pre-cancerous lesions may show an older biological age or predicted age than a normal tissue type without such a lesion.

In another embodiment, a majority of the age-associated epigenetic markers in the epigenome of the subject predicting an older age for a biological sample with tumor than biological sample of the same type without tumor may be more than about 70% of total age-associated epigenetic markers.

In an embodiment, one or more probes (e.g., chemical probes) may differentially react with an unmodified cytosine and 5-methyl-modified cytosine. The probe may be chosen from a set comprising a sodium bisulfite, sodium metabisulfite, and/or bisulfite salts.

In another embodiment, the outcome of reacting the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA with one or more probes may be the deamination of unmodified cytosine to uracil and unaltered 5-methylcytosine. Characterizing the outcome of probing (or reacting) the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA with one or more probe(s) or analyzing the methylation status may involve DNA amplification and nucleic acid sequence determination and detecting for the presence of either cytosine or thymine at the C position of the CpG dinucleotide within the age-associated epigenetic marker. Further. DNA amplification may be followed by phage RNA polymerase transcription, RNase cleavage and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) of RNase cleavage products.

The nucleic acid sequence determination may involve one or more of the following procedures: nucleic acid fragmentation, restriction enzyme digestion, nucleic acid hybridization, primer extension, pyrosequencing, single nucleotide extension, single nucleotide extension with biotin-labelled ddNTP, single nucleotide extension with 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP)-labelled ddNTP, radioactive isotope labeling, non-radioactive label incorporation, fluorescent label incorporation, biotin incorporation, antigen-antibody complex formation, antibody detection, colorimetric detection, fluorescence detection, detection with fluorescent dye-labelled antibody, detection with labeled avidin or streptavidin, bead analysis or detection method, signal amplification, polymerase chain reaction, DNA amplification with thermostable DNA polymerase, phi-29 DNA polymerase DNA amplification, RNA production, in vitro transcription, phage RNA polymerase transcription, T7 RNA polymerase transcription. SP6 RNA polymerase transcription, T3 RNA polymerase transcription, RNAse digestion, RNase A digestion, DNA cloning, bacterial transformation, gel electrophoresis, mass spectroscopy, MALDI-TOF mass spectroscopy, microarray analysis, fluorescence scanner analysis, automated digital image capture, automated digital image analysis, ratiometric analysis, and Infinium® HumanMethylation450 BeadChip analysis.

In another embodiment, the proportion of unmodified cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker may be a fraction or percent of an age-associated epigenetic marker with thymine at pyrimidine position of the CpG dinucleotide.

The ratio of 5-methylcytosine to unmodified cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker may be the ratio of cytosine to thymidine at pyrimidine position of the CpG dinucleotide after exposure to one or more probe and following analysis of products of nucleic acid amplification.

In yet another embodiment, the ratio of unmodified cytosine to 5-methylcytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker may be the ratio of thymidine to cytosine at pyrimidine position of the CpG dinucleotide after exposure to one or more probe and following analysis of products of nucleic acid amplification.

In an embodiment, one or more restriction enzyme probe which recognizes a specific DNA sequence, is affected by a CpG dinucleotide, within or adjacent to the restriction enzyme recognition or cleavage site, and differentially cleaves the DNA based on the presence or absence of a methyl group at C-5 position of cytosine of the dinucleotide may be selected. Examples of such restriction enzymes include but are not limited to AatII, Acc65I, AccI, AciI, AclI, AfeI, AgeI, AhdI, AleI, ApaI, ApaLI, AscI, AsiSI, AvaI, AvaII, BaeI, BanI, BbrPI, BbvCI, BceAI, BegI, BcoDI, BfuAI, BfuCI, BglI, BmgBI, BsaAI, BsaBI, BsaHI, BsaI, BseYI, BsiEI, BsiWI, BslI, BsmAI, BsmBI, BsmFI, BspDI, BsrBI, BsrFI, BssHII, BssKI, BstAPI, BstBI, BstUI, BstZ17I, Cac8I, ClaI, DpnI, DraIII, DrdI, EaeI, EagI, Earl, EciI, Eco53kI, EcoRI, EcoRV, FauI, Fnu4HI, FokI, FseI, FspI, HaeII, HaeIII, HgaI, HhaI, HincII, HinfI, HinPII, HpaI, HpaII, Hpy166II, Hpy188III, Hpy99I, HpyAV, HpyCH4IV, HpyCH4V, KasI, MboI, MluI, MmeI, MspA1I, MwoI, NacI, NarI, NciI, NgoMIV, NheI, NlaIV, NotI, Nrul, Nt. BbvCI, Nt. BsmAI, Nt. CviPII, PaeR71, PhoI, PleI, PluTI, PmeI, PmlI, PshAI, PspOMI, PspXI, PvuI, RsaI, RsrII, SacII, SalI, Sau3AI, Sau96I, ScrFI, SfaNI, SfiI, SfoI, SgrAI, SmaI, SnaBI, StyD4I, TfiI, TliI, TseI, TspMI, XhoI, XmaI, and ZraI.

In an embodiment, the outcome of reacting the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA with one or more restriction enzyme probe may be the production of a double-stranded DNA break at a restriction enzyme cleavage site when cytosine at a CpG dinucleotide is not modified or no double-stranded DNA break at a restriction enzyme cleavage site when cytosine at a CpG dinucleotide is modified at its C-5 position with a methyl group.

In another embodiment, analyzing the methylation status may comprise DNA amplification and analysis of age-associated epigenetic marker for specific DNA end(s) or fragment(s) due to cleavage by the restriction enzyme(s) and for intact restriction enzyme cleavage site associated at a particular age-associated epigenetic marker.

In another embodiment, the proportion of 5-methylcytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker may be a fraction or percent of the age-associated epigenetic marker with an intact restriction enzyme cleavage site due to resistance to cleavage by the restriction enzyme.

In yet another embodiment, the proportion of unmodified cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker may be a fraction or percent of the age-associated epigenetic marker cleaved by the restriction enzyme.

In another embodiment, the ratio of 5-methylcytosine to unmodified cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker may be the ratio of number or concentration of intact restriction enzyme cleavage sites to the number or concentration of double-stranded DNA breaks produced by the restriction enzyme for the age-associated epigenetic marker.

In another embodiment, the ratio of unmodified cytosine to 5-methylcytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker may be the ratio of number or concentration of double-stranded DNA breaks produced by the restriction enzyme to number or concentration of intact restriction enzyme cleavage sites resistant to cleavage by the restriction enzyme due to presence of 5-methylcytosine for the age-associated epigenetic marker.

In one embodiment, determining the methylation status comprises isolating genomic DNA or nuclear DNA from the sample. Additionally, the step involves probing the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA with one or more probes which differentially reacts with unmodified and 5-methyl-modified cytosine and amplifying the DNA. The step also involves digesting the amplified DNA with one or more restriction enzyme that recognizes a restriction enzyme site that contains a CpG dinucleotide but fails to digest the restriction enzyme site mutated to TpG dinucleotide from a CpG dinucleotide. Further, the step involves determining the proportion of 5-methylcytosine or unmodified cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker based on the fraction or percentage of restriction enzyme sites sensitive or resistant to digestion.

Alternatively, the methylation status may involve determining the ratio of 5-methylcytosine to unmodified cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker based on the ratio of number or concentration of sensitive restriction enzyme sites to number or concentration of resistant restriction enzyme sites to digestion. The methylation status may also involve determining the ratio of unmodified cytosine to 5-methylcytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker based on the ratio of number or concentration of resistant restriction enzyme sites to number or concentration of sensitive restriction enzyme sites to digestion.

In another embodiment, determining the methylation status of the set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5 may comprise isolating genomic DNA or nuclear DNA and fragmenting the genomic DNA or nuclear DNA. Additionally, the step involves exposing the fragmented DNA to a 5-methylcytosine-binding protein and separating 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-bound DNA fragments from 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-free DNA fragments. The step further involves determining for each age-associated epigenetic marker, the proportion of 5-methyl-cytosine-containing DNA fragments or unmodified cytosine-containing DNA fragments by determining the fraction or percent of 5-methylcytosine-binding protein bound or free DNA fragments, respectively, for each age-associated epigenetic marker.

Alternatively, the methylation status may involve determining for each age-associated epigenetic marker, the ratio of 5-methylcytosine-containing DNA fragments to unmodified cytosine-containing DNA fragments by determining the ratio of number or concentration of 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-bound DNA fragments to the number or concentration of 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-free DNA fragments.

The methylation status step may also involve determining for each age-associated epigenetic marker, the ratio of unmodified cytosine-containing DNA fragments to 5-methylcytosine-containing DNA fragments by determining the ratio of number or concentration of 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-free DNA fragments to the number or concentration of 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-bound DNA fragments for each age-associated epigenetic marker.

In one embodiment, the 5-methylcytosine-binding protein may be an antibody for 5-methylcytosine, MeCP2, MBD2, MBD2/MBD3L1 complex, core MBD domain of MBD2, or poly-MBD protein, a naturally occurring 5-methylcytosine binding protein, genetically engineered 5-methylcytosine binding protein, or derivative or fragment thereof.

In one embodiment, separating 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-bound DNA fragments from 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-free DNA fragments may include immunoprecipitation, immunocapture, solid phase chromatography, liquid chromatography, and/or gel electrophoresis.

In accordance with the practice of the invention, the invention provides methods for determining apparent methylomic aging rate (AMAR) of a subject. The method comprises predicting age by the method of the invention and dividing the age predicted by the actual chronological age.

In one embodiment, the invention provides methods for diagnosing the presence of tumor in a subject. The method comprises obtaining biological sample suspected to contain tumor and a second biological sample of the same type but known not to contain tumor. Additionally, the method comprises predicting the age of the each biological sample by the method of the invention. The method further comprises comparing the ages predicted for the two samples, such that a biological sample with tumor will have an older predicted age than biological sample without tumor.

In an embodiment, the invention provides a forensic diagnosis of human actual age from a tissue from a human by predicting age of a subject based on the epigenome of the subject by the method of the invention.

In another embodiment, the invention provides methods for health assessment of a subject by predicting age of a subject based on the epigenome of the subject by the method of the invention.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides methods for screening whether an agent of interest can retard or accelerate aging process. The method comprises obtaining a biological sample from a living organism, and optionally, culturing cells, tissue, or organ derived from a living organism and predicting age or AMAR of the organism, following the method of the invention, using organism appropriate age-associated epigenetic marker(s) such that the age-associated epigenetic marker(s) for a human subject may need to be substituted with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) for the organism being examined. Additionally, the method comprises exposing the living organism or cultured living cells, tissue, or organ from the living organism to an agent of interest in a single dose, multiple doses, or continuous doses and obtaining a biological sample from the living organism or the cultured living cells, tissue, or organ. The method further comprises predicting age or AMAR of the organism from the biological sample using organism appropriate age-associated epigenetic marker(s) such that the age-associated epigenetic marker(s) for a human subject may need to be substituted with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) for the organism being examined. The method also comprises performing the same steps on another individual from the same organism or a duplicate cultured living cells, tissue, or organ from the same individual or organism but not treated with any agent of interest or treated with a placebo and comparing, for biological sample of the same predicted age or AMAR, the predicted age or AMAR of the agent-of-interest-treated organism/individual or cultured cells, tissue, or organ with the predicted age or AMAR of the untreated or placebo-treated organism/individual or cultured cells, tissue, or organ, such that a lower value or range of values for the agent-of-interest-treated organism/individual or cultured cells, tissue, or organ indicates that an agent of interest can retard an aging process whereas a higher value or range of values indicates an agent of interest can accelerate aging process. The agent of interest may be an anti-oxidant, reducing agent, DNA damaging agent, vitamin, dietary supplement, food, food additive, food coloring, salt, vegetable, vegetable extract, fruit, fruit extract, flower, flower extract, fragrance, seed, seed extract, herb, herb extract, plant extract, fiber, fat, fatty acid, oil, sugar, artificial sweetener, probiotics, alcohol, wine, fungus, mold, cream, lotion, powder, makeup, sun blocker, gas, pollutant, smoke, environmental pollutant, paint, solvent, organic solvent, plastic, plasticizers, bisphenol, phenolic compounds, tobacco, inhalant, drug, biologic, hormone, endocrine disruptor, environmental estrogen, hormone antagonist, hormone agonist, caffeine, phytoestrogen, metal, enzyme, chelator, yogurt, sulfur compound, physical barrier, electromagnetic barrier, and radiation barrier.

In an embodiment, the organism may be yeast, fruit fly, fish, worm, insect, zebra fish, nematode, plant, or mammal. Mammal includes, but is not limited to, human, murine, simian, feline, canine, equine, bovine, porcine, ovine, caprine, rabbit, mammalian farm animal, mammalian sport animal, and mammalian pet.

In one embodiment, the invention provides methods for identifying type of tissue for a biological sample from a subject with a known chronological age. The method comprises ascertaining the chronological age of a subject and determining the predicted age of the subject from the biological sample by the method of the invention. Additionally, the method comprises comparing to a reference standard relating the predicted age for various types of tissue to chronological age and determining which value closely matches the predicted age in the reference standard for various types of tissue. Further, the method comprises assigning the type of tissue for the biological sample based on the closest match.

The invention also provides methods for identifying type of tissue for a biological sample from a subject with a known chronological age. The method comprises ascertaining the chronological age of a subject and determining the AMAR of the subject from the biological sample by dividing the predicted age of a subject from the chronological age of the subject. Additionally, the method comprises comparing to a reference standard relating the AMAR to chronological age for various types of tissue and determining which value closely matches the AMAR in the reference standard for various types of tissue. The method further comprises assigning the type of tissue for the biological sample based on the closest match.

In one embodiment, the set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) comprises any one or more of methylation marker cg23606718 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5 and/or cg16867657 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5.

The invention further provides methods for predicting age of a subject based on age-associated epigenetic modification affecting gene expression. The method comprises obtaining a biological sample of the subject and determining the expression of one or more gene(s) associated with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) whose expression changes with age. Additionally, the method comprises comparing the expression of one or more gene(s) associated with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) whose expression changes with age with the expression of the same gene(s) from an age-correlated reference population. The method further comprises obtaining a value or range of values for the predicted age of the subject. Comparing the expression of one or more gene(s) associated with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) whose expression changes with age with the expression of the same gene(s) from an age-correlated reference population may comprise any statistical method, multivariate regression method, linear regression analysis, tabular method, or graphical method used to predict the age of a subject based on expression of gene(s) associated with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) whose expression changes with age.

In one embodiment, the statistical method may be a multivariate regression algorithm or linear regression algorithm.

In another embodiment, one or more gene(s) associated with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) whose expression changes with age may comprise one or more of the genes listed in Table S6 or Table S7.

In another embodiment, the gene expression may be a transcription or translation. In another embodiment, the transcription results in the production of RNA transcripts and translation results in the production of proteins.

In accordance with the practice of the invention, the invention provides a method of screening a tissue sample from a subject in order to predict the age of the tissue sample based on the epigenome of the subject by the method the invention.

In one embodiment, the tissue sample may be exposed to at least one test agent in a high-throughput screening assay. In another embodiment, said process may be used for any one of diagnosis and/or high-throughput screening.

The invention also provides methods for predicting age of a tissue or organ of a subject based on the epigenome of the tissue or organ of the subject. The method comprises obtaining a biological sample of a tissue or organ from the subject and determining the methylation status of a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5. The method further comprises comparing the methylation status of a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) of the subject with the methylation status of the same markers from an age-correlated reference population so as to obtain a value or a range of values for the predicted age of the tissue or organ.

The methylation status of the same markers from an age-correlated reference population may be determined on a same or a different type of tissue or organ. The methylation status of the same markers from an age-correlated reference population may be determined on blood or fractionated blood.

In an embodiment, the methods of the invention provides for determining differential aging rates of tissues or organs of a subject. The method comprises obtaining biological samples from different tissue(s) or organ(s) from the subject and predicting the age of the tissue or organ using the methods of the invention. The method further comprises comparing the predicted ages where a difference in the predicted ages indicates a difference in the aging rate of the tissue(s) or organ(s) of the subject. The predicted age may be divided by the chronological age of the subject to obtain AMAR.

Compositions of the Invention

The invention further provides compositions which comprise a set of epigenetic markers based on five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; ten or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; fifteen or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; twenty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; twenty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; thirty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; thirty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; forty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; forty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; fifty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; fifty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; sixty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; sixty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5; or seventy or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5.

Further, in a preferred embodiment, the composition may comprise a set of epigenetic markers based on five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; ten or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifteen or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; twenty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; twenty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; thirty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; thirty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; forty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; forty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; sixty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; sixty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; or seventy or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3. For example, the set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) may comprise any one or more of the following methylation marker cg05652533 of Table S4, cg27367526 of Table S4, cg18404041 of Table S4, cg23606718 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5, cg16867657 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5, cg04474832 on chromosome 3 at position 52008487, cg05442902 on chromosome 22 at position 21369010, cg06493994 on chromosome 6 at position 25652602, cg09809672 on chromosome 1 at position 236557682, cg19722847 on chromosome 12 at position 30849114, cg22736354 on chromosome 6 at position 18122719, cg05652533 of Table S4, cg27367526 of Table S4, cg18404041 of Table S4, cg23606718 on chromosome 2 at position 131513927, and/or cg16867657 of chromosome 6 at position 11044877.

In yet another embodiment, the composition comprises a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) of methylation marker cg04474832 on chromosome 3 at position 52008487, cg05442902 on chromosome 22 at position 21369010, cg06493994 on chromosome 6 at position 25652602, cg09809672 on chromosome 1 at position 236557682, cg19722847 on chromosome 12 at position 30849114, and cg22736354 on chromosome 6 at position 18122719.

In another embodiment, the composition comprises a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) of any one or more of methylation marker cg20822990 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg04400972 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg16054275 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg03607117 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg20052760 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg16867657 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg06493994 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg06685111 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg00486113 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg20426994 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg14361627 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg08097417 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg07955995 of FIG. 9 or Table S3, cg22285878 of FIG. 9 or Table S3 and/or cg08540945 of FIG. 9 or Table S3.

In further embodiment, the composition comprises a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) of any one or more of methylation marker cg23606718 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5 and/or cg16867657 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5.

Kits

According to another aspect of the invention, kits are provided. Kits according to the invention include package(s) comprising compounds or compositions of the invention.

The phrase “package” means any vessel containing compounds or compositions presented herein. In preferred embodiments, the package can be a box or wrapping. Packaging materials for use in packaging pharmaceutical products are well known to those of skill in the art. Examples of pharmaceutical packaging materials include, but are not limited to, blister packs, bottles, tubes, inhalers, pumps, bags, vials, containers, syringes, bottles, and any packaging material suitable for a selected formulation and intended mode of administration and treatment.

The kit can also contain items that are not contained within the package but are attached to the outside of the package, for example, pipettes.

Kits may optionally contain instructions for administering compounds or compositions of the present invention to a subject having a condition in need of treatment. Kits may also comprise instructions for approved uses of compounds herein by regulatory agencies, such as the United States Food and Drug Administration. Kits may optionally contain labeling or product inserts for the present compounds. The package(s) and/or any product insert(s) may themselves be approved by regulatory agencies. The kits can include compounds in the solid phase or in a liquid phase (such as buffers provided) in a package. The kits also can include buffers for preparing solutions for conducting the methods, and pipettes for transferring liquids from one container to another.

The kit may optionally also contain one or more other compounds for use in combination therapies as described herein. In certain embodiments, the package(s) is a container for intravenous administration. In other embodiments, compounds are provided in an inhaler. In still other embodiments compounds are provided in a polymeric matrix or in the form of a liposome.

The invention provides for a kit for determining age of a subject based on epigenetic modification of subject's genetic material comprising the set of age-associated epigenetic marker or markers as listed in FIG. 9, Table S3, Table S4 or Table S5 as described in the methods of the invention, supra.

The invention further provides for a kit for predicting age of a subject based on the epigenome of the subject utilizing the set of the age-associated epigenetic marker(s) provided in FIG. 9, Table S3, S4 and/or S5 as described in the methods of the invention, supra.

In one embodiment, the age-associated epigenetic marker(s) may comprise a nucleic acid with a CpG dinucleotide. In another embodiment, the cytosine of the CpG dinucleotide may be subject to age-dependent changes in methylation at the C-5 position. In another embodiment, the CpG dinucleotide is at the chromosomal position as indicated in FIG. 9, Table S3, S4, and/or S5.

In an embodiment, the age-associated epigenetic marker(s) may be a human marker and selected from cg04474832 on chromosome 3 at position 52008487, cg05442902 on chromosome 22 at position 21369010, cg06493994 on chromosome 6 at position 25652602, cg09809672 on chromosome 1 at position 236557682, cg19722847 on chromosome 12 at position 30849114, cg22736354 on chromosome 6 at position 18122719, cg05652533 of Table S4, cg27367526 of Table S4, cg18404041 of Table S4, cg23606718 on chromosome 2 at position 131513927, and cg16867657 of chromosome 6 at position 11044877.

In yet another embodiment, the age-associated epigenetic marker(s) may have the sequence as provided in FIG. 9 or as can be found at the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, Md.) in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database with GEO accession number GPL13534.

The following examples are provided to further illustrate aspects of the invention. These examples are non-limiting and should not be construed as limiting any aspect of the invention.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Materials and Methods Sample Collection and Test Procedures

This study was approved by the institutional review boards of the University of California, San Diego; the University of Southern California; and West China Hospital. All participants signed informed consent statements prior to participation. Blood was drawn from a vein in the patient's arm into blood collection tubes containing the anticoagulant acid citrate dextrose. Genomic DNA was extracted from the whole blood with a QIAGEN FlexiGene DNA Kit and stored at −20° C. Methylation fraction values for the autosomal chromosomes were measured with the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip (Bibikova et al., 2011). This procedure uses bisulfate-treated DNA and two site-specific probes for each marker, which bind to the associated methylated and unmethylated sequences. The intensity of the methylated probe relative to the total probe intensity for each site represents the fractional level of methylation at that site in the sample. These values were adjusted for internal controls with Illumina's Genome Studio software. Methylation fraction values with a detection p value greater than 0.01 were set to “missing.” One patient sample and 830 markers were removed as they had greater than 5% missing values. The remaining missing values were imputed with the KNN approach (ten nearest markers) using the R “impute” package (Troyanskaya et al., 2001). We performed exome sequencing on 258 of these samples, using a solution hybrid selection method to capture DNA followed by parallel sequencing on an Illumina HiSeq platform. Genotype calls were made with the SOAP program (Li et al., 2008). Calls with a quality score less than twenty were set as missing. Only variants that had fewer than 10% missing calls, were within Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (p≦10⁻⁴), and were of a common frequency (>5%) were retained (10,694). Individuals with less than 20% missing calls (252) were retained. Additional genotyping was done with multiplex PCR followed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry analysis with the iPLEX/MassARRAY/Typer platform.

Methylation Quality Control

We used principal component (PC) analysis to identify and remove outlier samples. We converted each sample into a z score statistic, based on the squared distance of its 1st PC from the population mean. The z statistic was converted to a false-discovery rate with the Gaussian cumulative distribution and the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure (Benjamini and Hochberg, 1995). Samples falling below an FDR of 0.2 were designated at outliers and removed. This filtering procedure was performed iteratively until no samples were determined to be an outlier. A total of 24 samples were removed in this manner.

Association Testing

Association tests for trends in methylation fraction and deviance were performed with nested linear models and the F test. As methylation levels may be sensitive to a number of factors, we included several covariates, including gender, BMI, diabetes status, ethnicity, and batch. Tests for whole-methylome changes in deviance were computed with the binomial test, based on the number of markers with a positive rather than negative coefficient. Markers were annotated as having support from the TCGA data when the coefficient of aging was the same sign and the significance was better than p<0.05.

Annotation Enrichment

Methylation marker annotations for CpG islands and GO terms were obtained from the IlluminaHumanMethylation450k.db database from Bioconductor (Gentleman et al., 2004). Annotation enrichment tests were performed with the two-sided Fisher's exact test.

Aging Model

The diagnostic model of age was made with a multivariate linear model approach based on the Elastic Net algorithm implemented in the R package “glmnet” (Friedman et al., 2010). This approach is a combination of traditional Lasso and ridge regression methods, emphasizing model sparsity while appropriately balancing the contributions of correlated variables. It is ideal for building linear models in situations where the number of variables (markers) greatly outweighs the number of samples. Optimal regularization parameters were estimated via 10-fold crossvalidation. We employed bootstrap analysis, sampling the data set with replacement 500 times and building a model for each bootstrap cohort. We included in the final model only markers that were present in more than half of all bootstraps. The covariates gender, BMI, diabetes status, ethnicity, and batch were included in the model and were exempted from penalization (regularization). p values are based on a least-squares model built with the same terms and drop-one F tests. As BMI was strongly associated with age, the term was first adjusted for age before computing significance in the model. AMAR was computed with the aging model, but without the variables of gender, BMI, and diabetes status. The coefficients were not changed. AMAR was then taken as an individual's predicted age divided by her or his actual age.

Genetic Variant Associations

Each genetic variant was tested for association in an additive model with the top aging-associated methylation markers with nested linear models and the F test. We included covariates for gender, BMI, diabetes status, ethnicity, and batch. Variant positions were based on the human reference build GRCh37 and gene annotations were based on chromosomal proximity within 20 kbp.

Computing Methylation Deviance

Methylation deviance was computed via the following approach: First, we removed the methylation trends due to all given variables, including age, gender, and BMI by fitting a linear model for each marker and acting only on the residuals. Next, we identified and removed highly nonnormal markers on the basis of the Shapiro-Wilk test (p<10⁻⁵). To allow for naturally occurring extreme deviations in the normality test, we first estimated the outliers of each marker based on a Grubb's statistic, choosing the inclusion threshold based on the Benjamini-Hochberg FDR (Benjamini and Hochberg, 1995). If any samples had an FDR less than 0.4, we ignored them and repeated the outlier detection until no outliers were detected. Finally, the deviance of each remaining marker was computed as the square of its adjusted methylation value.

Entropy Analysis

Entropy statistics were computed on methylation data adjusted for covariates and filtered for normality (see Computing Methylation Deviance). We computed the normalized Shannon entropy (Shannon and Weaver, 1963) of an individual's methylome according to the formula

${{Entropy} = {\frac{1}{N*{\log \left( \frac{1}{2} \right)}}{\sum\limits_{i}\left\lbrack {{{MFi}*{\log ({MFi})}} + {\left( {1 - {MFi}} \right)*{\log \left( {1 - {MFi}} \right)}}} \right\rbrack}}},$

where MFi is the methylation fraction of the i^(th) methylation marker and N is the number of markers.

Mapping CpG Islands

Genomic positions and marker annotations for 27,176 CpG islands were obtained from the IlluminaHumanMethylation450k.db database from Bioconductor (Gentleman et al., 2004). We obtained the positions for markers within each island with at least four markers (25,028), as well as the nearest 100 markers upstream and downstream. These positions were then combined with the marker value of interest (i.e., methylation fraction, aging coefficient, or deviance) to produce a genomic map for each island and the surrounding region. After normalizing each map to the center of the island, we averaged the values at each relative genomic point across all islands to produce a common map.

Results and Discussion Global Methylomic Profiling Over a Wide Age Range

We obtained methylome-wide profiles of two different cohorts (N1=482, N2=174) sampled from a mixed population of 426 Caucasian and 230 Hispanic individuals, aged 19 to 101. Samples were taken as whole blood and processed with the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip assay (Bibikova et al., 2011), which measures the methylation states of 485,577 CpG markers. Methylation was recorded as a fraction between zero and one, representing the frequency of methylation of a given CpG marker across the population of blood cells taken from a single individual. Conservative quality controls were applied to filter spurious markers and samples. For simplicity, we discarded values for markers on sex chromosomes. Association tests revealed that 70,387 (15%) of the markers had significant associations between methylation fraction and age (FIG. 1, false discovery rate [FDR]<0.05 by F test). We were able to verify at a p<0.05 significance level 53,670 (76%) of these associations using 40 young and old samples recently published by Heyn et al. (2012). More detailed accounts of the individual aging markers and their genomic features are presented in the Figure S1 and Tables S1 and S2. The resulting data set represents the largest and highest-resolution collection of methylation data produced for the study of aging, providing an unprecedented opportunity to understand the role of epigenetics in the aging process. The complete methylation profiles are available at the Gene Expression Omnibus (GSE40279).

Table S1, Functional Annotations for Age-Associated Markers, Related to FIG. 1

Genes with nearby age-associated markers were enriched for many functions. A selection of these functions are shown here.

Over-enriched Terms Under-enriched Terms Cell communication (FDR ~10⁻⁷⁶) G-protein coupled receptor activity (FDR < 10⁻¹¹) Locomotion (FDR < 10⁻³³) Ribosome (FDR < 10⁻⁵) Cell proliferation (FDR < 10⁻¹⁷) RNA splicing (FDR < 0.05) Growth (FDR < 10⁻⁷) M phase (FDR < 0.05)

Table S2, Age-Associated Marker Properties, Related to FIG. 1

A table of age-associated markers and their coincidence with several genomic features. Each value represents the percentage of the age-associated markers of a particular type (columns) that are coincident with a particular annotation (rows).

All Increasing Decreasing Increasing Markers (%) Mean (%) Mean (%) Variance (%) MF > 0.5 55 13 57 51 MF < 0.5 45 87 43 49 CpG Island 31 68 8 24 CpG Shore 23 18 35 36 CpG Shelf 10 3 13 8 Enhancer 22 22 30 27 Promoter 20 7 13 8 DHS 12 30 14 16

A Predictive Model for the Aging Methylome

We built a predictive model of aging on the primary cohort using a penalized multivariate regression method known as Elastic Net (Zou and Hastie, 2005), combined with bootstrap approaches. The model included both methylomic and clinical parameters such as gender and body mass index (BMI) (FIG. 2A). The optimal model selected a set of 71 methylation markers that were highly predictive of age (FIG. 2A and Table S3). The accuracy of the model was high, with a correlation between age and predicted age of 96% and an error of 3.9 years (FIG. 2B). Nearly all markers in the model lay within or near genes with known functions in aging-related conditions, including Alzheimer's disease, cancer, tissue degradation, DNA damage, and oxidative stress. By way of example, two markers lay within the gene somatostatin (SST), a key regulator of endocrine and nervous system function (Yacubova and Komuro, 2002). SST is known to decline with age and has been linked to Alzheimer's disease (Saito et al., 2005). As a second example, six model markers lay within the transcription factor KLF14, which has been called a “master regulator” of obesity and other metabolic traits (Small et al., 2011). Given the links between aging, longevity, and metabolic activity (Lane et al., 1996; Tatar et al., 2003), it is not surprising that several of our model markers are implicated in obesity and metabolism.

Table S3, Aging Model Markers, Related to FIG. 2

A table of the methylation markers included in the primary aging model. The coefficient listed for each marker is its regression coefficient within the model. A second table is provided for the model based on all samples (primary and validation).

Marker Chromosome Position Genes CpG Island Coefficient cg20822990 1 17338766 ATP13A2, SDHB No −15.7 cg22512670 1 26855765 RPS6KA1 No 1.05 cg25410668 1 28241577 RPA2, SMPDL3B No 3.87 cg04400972 1 117665053 TRIM45, TTF2 Yes 9.62 cg16054275 1 169556022 F5, SELP No −11.1 cg10501210 1 207997020 C1orf132 No −6.46 cg09809672 1 236557682 EDARADD No −0.74 ch.2.30415474F 2 30561970 LBH No 5.79 cg22158769 2 39187539 ARHGEF33 Yes −2.06 cg02085953 2 97202260 ARID5A No 1.02 cg06639320 2 106015739 FHL2 Yes 8.95 cg22454769 2 106015767 FHL2 Yes 4.85 cg24079702 2 106015771 FHL2 Yes 2.48 cg23606718 2 131513927 FAM123C Yes 8.35 cg22016779 2 230452311 DNER, RNU7-9P No 1.79 cg04474832 3 52008487 ABHD14A, ABHD14B, ACY1, No −7.1 GPR62, PCBP4, RPL29 cg03607117 3 53080440 SFMBT1 Yes 10.7 cg07553761 3 160167977 SMC4, TRIM59 Yes 3.72 cg00481951 3 187387650 SST No −2.72 cg25478614 3 187387866 SST No 4.01 cg25428494 4 84255411 HPSE No −1.81 cg02650266 4 147558239 POU4F2 Yes 10.2 cg08234504 5 139013317 CTD-3224K15.2, CXXC5, UBE2D2 No −3.16 cg23500537 5 140419819 PCDHB1 No 5.67 cg20052760 6 10510789 GCNT2 No −12.6 cg16867657 6 11044877 ELOVL2 Yes 10.8 cg22736354 6 18122719 NHLRC1, TPMT Yes 4.42 cg06493994 6 25652602 SCGN Yes 9.42 cg06685111 6 30295466 XXbac-BPG283O16.8 No −13.1 cg00486113 6 31105711 No −10.7 cg13001142 6 147528521 STXBP5 No −5.8 cg20426994 7 130418324 KLF14 Yes 19.1 cg14361627 7 130419116 KLF14 Yes 10.7 cg08097417 7 130419133 KLF14 Yes 27.3 cg07955995 7 130419159 KLF14 Yes 13.7 cg22285878 7 130419173 KLF14 Yes −20.7 cg03473532 7 131008743 MKLN1 No −3.31 cg08540945 7 152591698 Yes 9.41 cg07927379 7 156433108 C7orf13, RNF32 Yes −1.42 cg16419235 8 57360613 PENK Yes −1.6 cg07583137 8 82644012 CHMP4C, ZFAND1 No 3.03 cg22796704 10 49673534 ARHGAP22 No −10.6 cg19935065 10 98062687 DNTT No 13.4 cg23091758 11 9025767 NRIP3, SCUBE2 Yes −0.392 cg23744638 11 10323902 ADM, AMPD3, SBF2 No 0.0859 cg04940570 11 12696758 TEAD1 Yes 11.6 cg11067179 11 66083541 CD248, RIN1, TMEM151A No 14.7 cg22213242 11 66083573 CD248, RIN1, TMEM151A Yes 23.7 cg06419846 11 66083697 CD248, RIN1, TMEM151A Yes 13.4 cg02046143 11 133797911 IGSF9B No −10.2 cg00748589 12 11653486 Yes 8.21 cg19722847 12 30849114 CAPRIN2, IPO8 No −5.66 cg18473521 12 54448265 HOXC4, HOXC5 No 8.85 cg01528542 12 81468232 ACSS3 No −2.98 ch.13.39564907R 13 40666907 No −20.6 cg03032497 14 61108227 SIX1 No 8.4 cg04875128 15 31775895 OTUD7A Yes −4.37 cg21296230 15 33010536 GREM1 Yes 8.39 cg09651136 15 72525012 PARP6, PKM2 No −15.8 cg03399905 15 79576060 ANKRD34C Yes 28 cg04416734 16 30075192 ALDOA, PPP4C No 11.9 cg07082267 16 85429035 No 2.87 cg14692377 17 28562685 BLMH, SLC6A4, SNORD63.3 Yes 19.1 cg06874016 17 40177415 DNAJC7, NKIRAS2, ZNF385C No −4.37 cg21139312 17 55663225 MSI2 No 17.1 cg02867102 17 62398693 No −12.5 cg19283806 18 66389420 CCDC102B, TMX3 No −4.29 cg14556683 19 15342982 BRD4, EPHX3 Yes −4.04 cg07547549 20 44658225 MMP9, SLC12A5 Yes 3.11 cg05442902 22 21369010 LZTR1, MIR649, P2RX6, SLC7A4, THAP7 No −22.7 cg08415592 22 36648973 APOL1, APOL2, Z82215.1 No −6.92 cg24724428

We validated this model on the secondary cohort, consisting of an additional 174 independent samples. These samples were processed in the same manner as the primary cohort and were then used to predict age based on the original model (i.e., as trained on the original cohort). The predictions were highly accurate, with a correlation between age and predicted age of 91% and an error of 4.9 years (FIG. 2C). The significance of the aging model was also confirmed by the data set presented in Heyn et al., verifying the age association of 70 of the 71 markers (Heyn et al., 2012). Furthermore, the model was able to fully separate old and young individuals in the Heyn et al. study, even for profiles obtained via bisulfate sequencing rather than the bead-chip technology used in this study (Figure S2).

Methylome Aging Rate and its Associations

While the aging model is able to predict the age of most individuals with high accuracy, it is equally valuable as a tool for identifying individual outliers who do not follow the expectation. For example, FIG. 2B highlights two individuals whose age is vastly over- or under-predicted on the basis of their methylation data. To examine whether these differences reflect true biological differences in the state of the individual (i.e., versus measurement error or intrinsic variability), we used the aging model to quantify each individual's apparent methylomic aging rate (AMAR), defined as the ratio of the predicted age, based on methylation data, to the chronological age. We then tested for associations between AMAR and possibly relevant clinical factors, including gender and BMI. Analysis of ethnicity and diabetes status was not possible due to correlations with batch variables (Figure S3). We found that gender, but not BMI had significant contributions to aging rate (F test, p=6×10⁻⁶, p>0.05). The methylome of men appeared to age approximately 4% faster than that of women (FIG. 2D), even though the overall distributions of age were not significantly different between the men and women in the cohort (p>0.05, KS test). Likewise, the validation cohort confirmed the increased aging rate for men (p<0.05), but was inconclusive for BMI (p>0.05). This complements a previous finding of an epigenetic signal for BMI that does not change with age (Feinberg et al., 2010).

As genetic associations have been previously reported with human longevity and aging phenotypes (Atzmon et al., 2006; Suh et al., 2008; Willcox et al., 2008; Wheeler et al., 2009), we examined whether the model could distinguish aging rates for individuals with different genetic variants. For this purpose, we obtained whole-exome sequences for 252 of the individuals in our methylome study at 15× coverage. After sequence processing and quality control, these sequences yielded 10,694 common single-nucleotide variants across the population. As a negative control, we confirmed that none of the genetic variants were significant predictors of age itself, which is to be expected since the genome sequence is considered to be relatively static over the course of a lifetime. On the other hand, one might expect to find genetic variants that modulate the methylation of age-associated markers, i.e., methylation quantitative-trait loci or meQTLs (Bell et al., 2011). Testing each genetic variant for association with the top age-associated methylation markers, we identified 303 meQTLs (FDR<0.05, FIG. 3A). For validation, we selected eight genetic variants (corresponding to 14 meQTLs) to test in a validation cohort of 322 individuals from our methylation study. This analysis found that seven of eight genetic variants (corresponding to seven meQTLs) remained highly significant in the validation cohort (FDR<0.05, Table S4). While all of these variants acted in cis with their meQTLs (within 150 kbp), we confirmed that none directly modified the CpG site or associated probe sequence of the associated methylation marker.

Table S4, Genetic Variants Influencing Age-Associated Methylation, Related to FIG. 3

A table of the genetic variants which were found to influence age-associated methylation. Distance is the genomic distance from the genetic marker to the methylation marker. Association values are listed as p-values. AMAR association is the significance of the association between the genetic marker and AMAR.

Genetic Genetic Methylation Methylation Distance Meth-Age Meth-Geno AMAR Marker Genes Marker Genes (bp) Association Association Association rs2818384 JAKMIP3 cg05652533 DPYSL4, 38793 5.86 × 10⁻⁹ 3.73 × 10⁻²¹ 0.00133 JAKMIP3 rs42663 GTPBP10 cg27367526 STEAP2 142116  1.44 × 10⁻¹⁸ 8.05 × 10⁻²² 0.00476 rs2230534 ITIH1, cg18404041 ITIH1, ITIH3, 21881  6.78 × 10⁻¹⁴ 1.26 × 10⁻⁸⁷ 0.02125 NEK4 NEK4 rs17152433 CTBP2, cg07906193 70390 8.51 × 10⁻⁹ 7.54 × 10⁻⁵⁶ 0.05273 ZRANB1 rs1058405 ATF6 cg19735514 ATF6 10998  4.50 × 10⁻¹¹ 3.87 × 10⁻⁶³ 0.55546 rs57913893 ACSS1, cg26306437 C20orf3, 59756 5.20 × 10⁻⁸ 5.50 × 10⁻¹⁶ 0.80327 C20orf3 CST7 rs6115003 ACSS1 cg26306437 C20orf3, 70693 5.20 × 10⁻⁸ 4.17 × 10⁻¹⁷ 0.92096 CST7

The methylation marker cg27193080 was one of those found to be significantly associated with age (p<10⁻¹⁷), and its methylation fraction was found to be influenced by the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) variant rs140692 (p<10⁻²¹) (FIG. 3B). This meQTL was particularly interesting as both the SNP and the methylation marker mapped to the gene methyl-CpG binding domain protein 4 (MBD4, with the SNP in an intron and the methylation marker just upstream of the coding region), one of the few known genes encoding a protein that can bind to methylated DNA. This meQTL thus captures a cis relationship in which rs140692 influences the methylation state of MBD4. That MBD4 plays a role in human aging is supported by previous work linking MBD4 to DNA repair, as well as work showing that mutations and knockdowns of MBD4 lead to increased genomic instability (Bellacosa et al., 1999; Bertoni et al., 2009).

Of the seven validated meQTLs, three were identified that had a statistically significant association not only with age but also with aging rate (AMAR, FDR<0.05, FIGS. 3B and 3C). One is the genetic marker rs2230534, which is a synonymous mutation in the gene NEK4, and has a cis association with the methylation marker cg18404041. The NEK family of kinases plays a key role in cell-cycle regulation and cancer (Moniz et al., 2011). The second variant is rs2818384, which is a synonymous mutation in the gene JAKMIP3 and has a cis association with the methylation marker cg05652533. Copy-number variants in JAKMIP3 have been previously associated with glioblastoma (Xiong et al., 2010). The final variant found to influence AMAR is rs42663, which is a missense mutation in the gene GTPBP10 and associates with cg27367526 in the gene STEAP2. STEAP2 is known to play a role in maintaining homeostasis of iron and copper-metals that serve as essential components of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (Ohgami et al., 2006). Studies have shown that perturbations of iron concentrations can induce DNA damage through oxidative stress in mammalian cells (Hartwig and Schlepegrell, 1995; Karthikeyan et al., 2002). These meQTLs represent genetic variants that appear to broadly influence the aging methylome and may be good candidates for further age-associated disease and longevity research.

A Multitissue Diagnostic

Our aging model was derived from whole blood, which is advantageous in the design of practical diagnostics and for testing samples collected from other studies. To investigate whether our aging model was representative of other tissues, we obtained DNA methylation profiles for 368 individuals in the control category of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) (Collins and Barker, 2007), including 83 breast, 183 kidney, 60 lung, and 42 skin samples. An aging model based on both our primary and validation cohorts demonstrated strong predictive power for chronological age in these samples (expected value R=0.72), although each tissue had a clear linear offset (intercept and slope) from the expectation (FIG. 4A). This offset was consistent within a tissue, even across different batches of the TCGA data. We adjusted for each tissue trend using a simple linear model, producing age predictions with an error comparable to that found in blood (FIG. 4B). Furthermore, predicted AMARs in each tissue supported the effect of men appearing to age more quickly than women (p<0.05). Thus, computation of aging rate (AMAR) from blood samples reflects trends that are not specific to blood and may be common throughout many tissues of the human body. Furthermore, this analysis provides evidence that the observed methylomic changes are intrinsic to the methylome and not due primarily to cell heterogeneity, i.e., changing cell-type composition of whole blood with age. In this regard, this study is consistent with a prior analysis of purified CD4+ T cells and CD14+ monocytes, in which the age-associated epigenetic modifications were found to be similar to the changes observed in whole blood (Rakyan et al., 2010).

To investigate the similarities and differences between the tissues, we built age models de novo for breast, kidney, and lung tissues (Table S5; the skin cohort had too few samples to build a model). Most of the markers in the models differed, although all of these models and the primary model share the markers cg23606718 and cg16867657. These markers are both annotated to the gene ELOVL2, which has been linked to the photoaging response in human skin (Kim et al., 2010).

Table S5, Aging Model Markers for TCGA Data, Related to FIG. 4

To investigate the similarities and differences between the tissues, we built an age model for breast, kidney, and lung tissues. The skin cohort did not have enough samples to build a model. The markers and coefficients of each model are listed here.

Marker Chromosome Position Genes CpG Island Coefficient cg23040782 1 6762215 DNAJC11 No −7.45 cg11197101 1 33219998 KIAA1522 Yes 8.73 cg00252781 1 179334658 C1orf125, SOAT1 No 13.2 cg16909962 1 229406711 RAB4A, TMEM78 Yes 27.6 cg23606718 2 131513927 FAM123C Yes 25.1 cg03545227 2 220173100 MIR153-1, PTPRN, RESP18 Yes 13.5 cg00702638 3 44803293 KIAA1143, KIF15 Yes 53.1 cg05555455 3 148804550 HLTF, Y_RNA.240 Yes −18.5 cg03844506 4 4109441 Yes −7.72 cg16558177 4 4109446 Yes −2.25 cg11299854 5 132083184 CCNI2, KIF3A, SEPT8 Yes 43.6 cg05708550 5 137688227 CDC25C, FAM53C, KDM3B Yes 8.4 cg16867657 6 11044877 ELOVL2 Yes 23.1 cg22736354 6 18122719 NHLRC1, TPMT Yes −15 cg14848772 6 27099813 HIST1H2AG, HIST1H2AH, HIST1H2BJ, No −14.3 HIST1H2BK, HIST1H4I cg15623062 6 31747133 Y_RNA.307 No 32.2 cg16489193 6 33240059 Yes 25.5 cg18468088 6 35490818 TULP1 No 5.96 cg04911280 6 44281184 AARS2, TCTE1, TMEM151B Yes −9.67 cg19291355 6 44281188 AARS2, TCTE1, TMEM151B Yes −5.16 cg05917988 6 44281197 AARS2, TCTE1, TMEM151B Yes 2.77 cg20160885 7 5013524 MMD2, RBAK, RNF216L Yes 49.6 cg19230755 7 65878503 GS1-124K5.2, GS1-124K5.6, NCRNA00174, Yes −2.26 SKP1P1, TPST1, U6.862 cg09941452 7 97557827 Yes −14.2 cg26830108 7 100813299 AP1S1, C7orf52, VGF No 1.22 cg19273773 7 102790112 NAPEPLD Yes 1.56 cg14361627 7 130419116 KLF14 Yes 1.17 cg08097417 7 130419133 KLF14 Yes 53.5 cg02821342 7 130793551 MKLN1 No −19.8 cg07392449 8 11324666 FAM167A Yes 73 cg08318076 8 62051812 CLVS1 Yes 13 cg02560186 11 3602584 OR7E117P Yes 27.8 cg08715791 11 66189297 MRPL11, NPAS4, SNORA43.2 Yes −30.6 cg23156348 11 124981869 TMEM218 No −21.1 cg10820926 14 30397408 PRKD1 Yes 19.2 cg06121469 15 44956098 PATL2, SPG11 No −0.156 cg07477282 15 44956107 PATL2, SPG11 No 2.22 cg21801378 15 72612125 CELF6 Yes −49.5 cg02331561 16 2391081 ABCA17P, ABCA3 Yes −17 cg06144905 17 27369780 PIPOX No 9.13 cg14692377 17 28562685 BLMH, SLC6A4, SNORD63.3 Yes 13.7 cg18569335 17 40171970 DNAJC7, NKIRAS2, ZNF385C Yes −30.6 cg26147554 18 712733 ENOSF1, YES1 Yes 17.7 cg21927946 19 4769688 C19orf30, MIR7-3 No 73.4 cg15789607 19 4769690 C19orf30, MIR7-3 No −15.4 cg12589298 19 50828905 KCNC3, MYH14, NAPSB Yes 15.3 cg06458239 19 58038573 MIR1274B, ZNF549, ZNF550, ZNF773 Yes 22.4 cg10729426 19 58038585 MIR1274B, ZNF549, ZNF550, ZNF773 Yes 13.5 cg26734668 19 58111094 ZIK1, ZNF134, ZNF530 No 9.2 cg22888484 20 37075185 SNHG11, SNORA39, SNORA60, SNORA71.3, No 201 SNORA71A, SNORA71C, SNORA71D

The TCGA data set also contains methylome profiles representing a total of 319 tumors and matched normal tissue samples (breast, kidney, lung, and skin). Interestingly, use of our aging model indicated that tumors appear to have aged 40% more than matched normal tissue from the same individual (Wilcox test, p<10⁻⁴¹, FIGS. 4C and 4D). Accelerated tumor aging was apparent regardless of the primary tissue type. We investigated whether this was the result of broad shifts in global methylation levels by examining all 70,387 age-associated markers, of which 44% tend to increase and 56% tend to decrease with age. Methylation fraction values in matched tumor and normal samples supported the finding that tumors coincide with older values for 74% of the markers regardless of the trending direction (binomial p ˜0). Furthermore, separate aging models built in the matched normal and tumor samples confirm the apparent aging effect (Figure S4).

Different Aging Rates Lead to Divergent Methylomes

If individuals indeed age at different rates, it might be expected that their individual methylomes should diverge over time. This is based on the premise that the methylomes of the very young share certain similarities and that these similarities diminish as individuals accumulate changes over time. This effect, called epigenetic drift, has been observed in monozygotic twins (Fraga et al., 2005), but few specific hypothesis have been put forth to account for it. To examine epigenetic drift in our samples, we computed the deviance of each methylation marker value as its squared distance from the expected population mean (FIG. 5A). Then, in addition to testing for markers whose methylation fraction changes with age (FIGS. 5B and 5C), we were able to test for markers whose deviance changes with age (FIGS. 5D and 5E) (Breusch and Pagan, 1979). Increasing deviance was a widespread phenomenon—we identified 27,800 markers for which the deviance was significantly associated with age (FDR<0.05), of which 27,737 (99.8%) represented increased rather than decreased deviance (FIGS. 5E and S5). For any given individual, especially high or low methylome deviance was a strong predictor of aging rate (R=0.47, p ˜0), suggesting that differences in aging rates account for part of methylome heterogeneity and epigenetic drift.

Another way to examine epigenetic drift is in terms of Shannon entropy, or loss of information content in the methylome over time (Shannon and Weaver, 1963). An increase in entropy of a CpG marker means that its methylation state becomes less predictable across the population of cells, i.e., its methylation fraction tends toward 50%. Indeed, over all markers associated with a change in methylation fraction in the sample cohort, 70% tended toward a methylation fraction of 50% (FIG. 6A, binomial p ˜0, Table S2). Consequently, we observed a highly significant increase in methylome entropy over the sample cohort (R=0.21, p<10⁻⁷). Furthermore, extreme methylome entropy for an individual was highly correlated with accelerated aging rate based on AMAR (R=0.49, p ˜0, FIG. 6B).

Aging Rates and the Transcriptome

As changes in methylation have been directly linked to changes in gene expression (Sun el al., 2011), we were interested in whether these changes in the aging methylome were mirrored on a functional level in the human transcriptome and reflected differences in aging rates. For this purpose, we obtained and analyzed publicly available gene expression profiles from the whole blood of 488 individuals spanning an age range of 20 to 75 (Emilsson et al., 2008). We found strong evidence for genes whose expression associates with age (326 genes, FDR<0.05) and for genes with increasing expression deviance (binomial p<10⁻²⁷⁶). Strikingly, we found that genes with age-associated expression profiles were more likely to have nearby age-associated methylation markers in our data (p<0.01, Table S6). We used this information to build a model of aging based on the expression of genes that were associated with age in the methylome (FIG. 7A, Table S7). This model demonstrated a clear ability to measure aging rate using expression data, reproducing our finding of increased aging rates for men as compared to women (FIG. 7B, 11% difference, p<10⁻⁴). The gender effect was not present in a model built using all available genes rather than those associated with age-related changes in the methylome (p>0.05). Thus, age-associated changes to the methylome are indicative of functional changes in gene expression patterns.

Table S6, Genes Associated with Aging in Both the Methylome and the Transcriptome, Related to FIG. 7

A list of genes which mapped to age-associated methylation markers and showed age-associated changes the transcriptome.

ABCA3 ABCB9 ABLIM1 ACAA2 ACCN2 ACSF2 ACVR2A AEBP1 AGBL2 AGPAT4 AK5 ALDH5A1 ANKRD13B ANKS6 ANXA1 APBA2 APBB1 APOBEC3H ARAP2 ARHGEF4 ATP1B1 B3GAT1 BACH2 BATF3 BCAS4 BCL7A BCL9 BDH1 BFSP1 BHLHE40 BLNK BYSL C10orf128 C12orf23 C16orf45 C17orf58 C1orf172 C1orf21 C1orf216 C1orf51 C21orf63 C2orf40 C6orf97 CACHD1 CACNA2D2 CALHM2 CAMK2N1 CAPN2 CCDC106 CCR10 CCR7 CD200 CD244 CD8B CD9 CDCA7L CDKN1C CEBPG CECR5 CENPE CENPV CHMP7 CHSY3 CAPIN1 CISH CMC1 COBLL1 COL5A3 CR2 CRIP1 CRTAM CRTC3 CSF1R CST7 CTLA4 CTNNA1 CTSL1 CX3CR1 CYP2J2 CYP4F12 DCBLD2 DDB2 DEFA4 DENND2D DEPDC7 DGKA DLL1 DNASE1L3 DNMT3A DNMT3B DPH5 DUSP4 DYNLL1 ECT2 EDAR EEF1G EFNA1 EOMES EPHA1 EPHA2 EPHX2 EPPK1 EXPH5 FAIM3 FAM129C FAM134B FAM13A FAN1 FASLG FBL FBLN2 FBXO24 FCGBP FGFBP2 FGFRL1 FLNB FOXP1 FZD1 GAL3ST4 GATA3 GFI1 GLT25D2 GNG7 GPC2 GPR114 GPR137B GPR153 GPR56 GSC GTSF1 GYG1 GZMH HEXIM1 HIST1H3D HOPX IGFBP7 IGLL1 IL10RA IL16 IL4I1 IL7R INPP4B IRS1 ITFG2 ITGA6 ITM2C JAKMIP1 KAT2A KATNAL1 KCNMB4 KIAA1841 KLF4 KLF6 KLHL14 KLHL3 KLRG1 LAMA5 LBH LDLRAP1 LEF1 LGALS1 LILRA4 LIMS2 LMO7 LPCAT1 LRP11 LRRC32 LTK MAN1C1 MB21D2 MEOX1 MEST MLF1 MPI MS4A3 MS4A4A MT1E MT1M MTSS1 MTUS1 MXRA8 MYC MYO6 MYOF NBEA NCAPH NEFH NELL2 NHLRC1 NKG7 NMT2 NMUR1 NOB1 NOP16 NOSIP NPM3 NRCAM NSUN5 NT5E NTAN1 NUAK1 OSBPL10 OXNAD1 P2RX5 PACSIN1 PALLD PAQR4 PCBP4 PCDH12 PCSK4 PCSK5 PDE6B PDE7A PDE9A PDGFD PDGFRB PELI3 PHGDH PHLDA3 PHYHD1 PI16 PIK3IP1 PLAG1 PLCG1 PLEKHA7 PLXDC1 PMEPA1 PMP22 POMC POU2AF1 PPAP2C PPM1J PPP2R2B PRR5L PRSS23 PRSS35 PTGDS PTGER2 PTPRK PTTG1 PUS1 PYROXD1 RAB15 RAB27B RAB6B RAB6C RAD54B RAMP1 RAPGEF6 RASD1 RASGEF1A RGMA RGS9 RHOC RNASE2 RNASE3 RNF144A ROBO1 RPL13 RUNX3 S100A10 S1PR5 SATB1 SCARB1 SEC14L2 SEMA3G SFRP5 SFTPD SIRPG SLAMF7 SLC1A7 SLC23A1 SLC27A5 SLC2A6 SLC45A3 SOCS2 SORC53 SOX15 SPEG SPIB SPINK2 SPN STOM STX8 SUSD1 SYT11 TARBP1 TBX21 TCAP TCF3 TCF4 TCF7 TCF7L2 TGFBR3 TIGIT TM6SF1 TMEM121 TMEM8B TMIGD2 TNFRSF17 TNFRSF25 TPPP3 TRAF5 TRAP1 TRIM2 TSPAN13 TSPAN2 TWIST1 TXNDC5 USP18 VCAM1 VIT WARS ZBED3 ZFYVE28 ZNF135 ZNF167 ZNF177 ZNF263 ZNF285 ZNF365 ZNF462 ZNF528 ZNF544 ZNF551 ZSCAN18

Table S7, Transcriptome Aging Model, Related to FIG. 7

The list of genes and coefficients used for predicting age based on transcriptome data.

Gene Coefficient ABLIM1 −4.537363687 ACCN2 −4.021935755 ACVR2A 5.862922173 AK5 −10.29726151 ANXA1 6.307730249 ASNS 23.66865779 AUTS2 −13.3985662 C16orf45 4.553248948 CACHD1 −7.768187189 CDKN1C −0.0105012 CENPV −2.462314825 CMC1 8.866490009 CR2 −1.78645877 CRIP1 4.33558575 EFNA1 −5.741766145 EPHA2 2.917895917 FAIM3 1.019538625 FBLN2 −2.061520114 FLNB −3.844863485 FZD1 1.375051746 GPC2 −7.431385678 GSC 4.904090057 GTSF1 12.58953522 HIST1H3D −8.692565907 IGLL1 −4.235566899 KRT72 2.814127932 LRP11 5.664133584 MEOX1 13.8516364 MS4A3 −2.661573104 NEFH −6.728594491 NMT2 −15.38338708 NOSIP −13.61680769 NT5E −1.994658678 PHLDA3 18.71229769 PHYHD1 −5.052538719 PLXDC1 −5.337661458 POMC −6.100365433 PRSS35 −6.498528559 PTGER2 −8.407414661 PYROXD1 13.70056157 RGMA 5.458322024 ROBO1 −7.342718162 SEC14L2 −2.887682148 SFRP5 4.430923586 SLC45A3 8.799140451 SORCS3 9.998064269 SPEG 0.574659287 SPINK2 0.302316458 SYT11 7.093819787 TMEM8B −13.0069907 TM1GD2 6.006761191 TNFRSF17 −6.154501401 TXNDC5 −0.265342977 ZNF285 −4.729710661

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we have shown that genome-wide methylation patterns represent a strong and reproducible biomarker of biological aging rate. These patterns enable a quantitative model of the aging methylome that demonstrates high accuracy and an ability to discriminate relevant factors in aging, including gender and genetic variants. Moreover, our ability to apply this model in multiple tissues suggests the possibility of a common molecular clock, regulated in part by changes in the methylome. It remains to be seen whether these changes occur on an intracellular level uniformly across a population of cells, or reflect consistent changes in tissue composition over time.

The ability to predict age from whole blood may permit a wider analysis in longitudinal studies such as the Framingham Study, the Women's Health Initiative, blood samples collected on neonatal Guthrie cards, and other longitudinal studies with rich annotation of biometric and disease traits. Aging trends could emerge from such studies with many potential practical implications, from health assessment and prevention of disease to forensic analysis. Similar to the effect of gender in this study, the identification of additional biometric or environmental factors that influence AMAR, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, or diet, will permit quantitative assessments of their impacts on health and longevity. A useful example would be to periodically assess the rate of aging of an individual using AMAR and determine whether diet or environmental factors can accelerate or retard the aging process and diseases such as age related macular degeneration. As models of human aging improve, it is conceivable that biological age, as measured from molecular profiles, might one day supersede chronological age in the clinical evaluation and treatment of patients.

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Example 2 Building a Methylation Model of Aging

We measured the methylation states of 485,577 CpG markers in genomic DNA collected from whole blood samples of 302 Caucasian individuals. Of these, 80 individuals had been diagnosed with type-2 diabetes, 22 of which were also characterized with diabetic nephropathy. For further study and validation, the methylation states of a second cohort were obtained, consisting of 188 Hispanic individuals. Everyone in the second cohort was diagnosed with type-2 diabetes, and 89 individuals also had diabetic nephropathy. Careful filtering and normalization was performed to remove the effects of gender, batch, and other unknown covariates.

In general, we assume biological activity will track with chronological age, allowing us to infer a biological model from chronological age. We hypothesize that changes in molecular activity from a common baseline will reflect a deceleration or acceleration of the aging process, to which disease, environment, and genetics might contribute.

Formally, we define biological age (bioage) as:

${Bioage} = {{f\left( M_{sub} \right)} = {{Age} + {\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{f}{\alpha_{j}c_{j}}} + ɛ}}$

where M_(sub) is a small subset of the methylation data, ∝_(j) is a numerical coefficient, c_(j) is the j-th trait, and ε is model error. A critical point here is that by selecting model probes that are coordinately linked to chronological aging, alterations to the methyl states corresponding to these same probes are likely to reflect either attenuation or amplification of the aging process.

We considered that the rate of biological aging is not constant, and that during different milestones of human development and senescence large shifts in biological aging will occur. We tested this hypothesis by first using a univariate association test, to identify the top age-associated methylation markers in the primary cohort (FDR<0.05). We then measured the relative coherence of these markers between young and old individuals using an entropy metric (FIG. 1). We found that the associated markers were much more coherent in the young individuals than in the old individuals (p<0.05). This suggests that methylation aging patterns are similar for young individuals, but diverge over time. 

1. A method for predicting age of a subject based on the epigenome of the subject comprising: (a) obtaining a biological sample of the subject; (b) determining the methylation status of a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4 and/or S5; and (c) comparing the methylation status of a set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) of the subject with the methylation status of the same markers from an age correlated reference population so as to obtain a value or a range of values for the predicted age of the subject, thereby predicting the age of a subject based on the epigenome of the subject.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein in (b), determining the methylation status comprises the following steps: (a) isolating genomic DNA or nuclear DNA from the sample; (b) reacting the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA with one or more probes which differentially reacts with unmodified cytosine so that the cytosine is converted to uracil; (c) analyzing the methylation status at the C position of a CpG dinucleotide in the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA of the sample by detecting the presence of a cytosine or uracil, the presence of cytosine or uracil indicating presence of a 5-methylcytosine or unmodified cytosine, respectively, in the original CpG dinucleotide; and (d) determining proportion of 5-methylcytosine or unmodified cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker from (c); or alternatively, determining the ratio of 5-methyl-cytosine to unmodified cytosine or the ratio of unmodified cytosine to 5-methyl-cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker from (c).
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein in (b), the methylation status is determined from five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; ten or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifteen or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; twenty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; twenty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; thirty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; thirty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; forty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; forty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; sixty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; sixty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3; or seventy or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject from FIG. 9 or Table S3.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the age of a subject is a chronological age or a biological age.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the epigenome is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in which the DNA is subjected to epigenetic modification.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein epigenetic modification is the methylation of CpG residues.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the biological sample is blood, lymphocyte, monocyte, neutrophil, basophil, eosinophil, myeloid lineage cell, lymphoid lineage cell, bone marrow, saliva, buccal swab, nasal swab, urine, fecal material, hair, breast tissue, ovarian tissue, uterine tissue, cervical tissue, prostate tissue, testicular tissue, brain tissue, neuronal cell, astrocyte, liver tissue, kidney, thyroid tissue, stomach tissue, intestine tissue, pancreatic tissue, vascular tissue, skin, lung tissue, bone tissue, cartilage, ligament, tendon, fat cells, muscle cells, neurons, astrocytes, cultured cells with different passage number, cancer/tumor cells, cancer/tumor tissue, normal cells, normal tissue, any tissue(s) or cell(s) with a nucleus containing genetic material, or genetic material in the form of DNA.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) comprises individual CpG residues subject to age-dependent methylation at C-5 position of cytosine in the genome of a subject.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the set of markers comprise about 70 distinct CpG residue-containing age-associated epigenetic markers.
 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the set of markers comprises any one or more of markers as shown in FIG. 9, Table S3, Table S4 or Table S5.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the set of markers comprises five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; ten or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifteen or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; twenty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; twenty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; thirty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; thirty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; forty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; forty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; fifty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; sixty or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; sixty-five or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3; or seventy or more age-associated epigenetic marker(s) as shown in FIG. 9 or Table S3.
 19. The method of claim 13, wherein the set of markers having individual CpG residues subject to methylation of C-5 position of cytosine in the genome of a subject comprises any one or more of methylation marker PENK of Table S3, FLH2 of Table S3, cg05652533 of Table S4, cg27367526 of Table S4, cg18404041 of Table S4, cg23606718 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5, cg16867657 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5, cg04474832 on chromosome 3 at position 52008487, cg05442902 on chromosome 22 at position 21369010, cg06493994 on chromosome 6 at position 25652602, cg09809672 on chromosome 1 at position 236557682, cg19722847 on chromosome 12 at position 30849114, cg22736354 on chromosome 6 at position 18122719, cg05652533 of Table S4, cg27367526 of Table S4, cg18404041 of Table S4, cg23606718 on chromosome 2 at position 131513927, and/or cg16867657 of chromosome 6 at position
 11044877. 21. The method of claim 13, wherein the set of markers having individual CpG residues subject to methylation at C-5 position of cytosine in the genome of a subject comprises PENK of Table S3 and FLH2 of Table S3.
 23. A method for diagnosing the presence of tumor in a subject comprising: (a) obtaining biological sample suspected to contain tumor and a second biological sample of the same type but known not to contain tumor; (b) predicting age of the each biological sample by the method of claim 1; (c) comparing the ages predicted for the two samples, such that a biological sample with tumor will have an older predicted age than biological sample without tumor; thereby diagnosing the presence of tumor in a subject.
 25. The method of claim 23, wherein the set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject comprises any of methylation marker PENK of Table S3, FLH2 of Table S3, cg23606718 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5 and/or cg16867657 of FIG. 9, Tables S3 and S5.
 35. The method of claim 2, wherein the ratio of unmodified cytosine to 5-methylcytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker is the ratio of thymidine to cytosine at pyrimidine position of the CpG dinucleotide after exposure to one or more probe and following analysis of products of nucleic acid amplification.
 38. The method of claim 3, wherein analyzing the methylation status in step (c) comprises DNA amplification and analysis of age-associated epigenetic marker (a) for specific DNA end(s) or fragment(s) due to cleavage by the restriction enzyme(s) and (b) for intact restriction enzyme cleavage site associated at a particular age-associated epigenetic marker.
 43. The method of claim 1, wherein in (b), determining the methylation status comprises the following steps: (a) isolating genomic DNA or nuclear DNA from the sample; (b) probing the isolated genomic DNA or nuclear DNA with one or more probes which differentially reacts with unmodified and 5-methyl-modified cytosine; (c) amplifying the DNA of step (b); (d) digesting the amplified DNA of step (c) with one or more restriction enzyme that recognizes a restriction enzyme site that contains a CpG dinucleotide but fails to digest the restriction enzyme site mutated to TpG dinucleotide from a CpG dinucleotide; (e) determining the proportion of 5-methylcytosine or unmodified cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker based on the fraction or percentage of restriction enzyme sites sensitive or resistant to digestion in step (d), respectively; or, alternatively, determining the ratio of 5-methylcytosine to unmodified cytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker based on the ratio of number or concentration of sensitive restriction enzyme sites to number or concentration of resistant restriction enzyme sites in step (d); or alternatively, determining the ratio of unmodified cytosine to 5-methylcytosine initially present at each age-associated epigenetic marker based on the ratio of number or concentration of resistant restriction enzyme sites to number or concentration of sensitive restriction enzyme sites to digestion in step (d).
 44. The method of claim 1, wherein in (b), determining the methylation status of the set of age-associated epigenetic marker(s) in the epigenome of the subject selected from FIG. 9, Tables S3, S4, and/or S5 comprises the following steps: (a) isolating genomic DNA or nuclear DNA; (b) fragmenting the genomic DNA or nuclear DNA; (c) exposing the fragmented DNA of step (b) to a 5-methylcytosine-binding protein; (d) separating 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-bound DNA fragments from 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-free DNA fragments of step (c); (e) determining for each age-associated epigenetic marker, the proportion of 5-methyl-cytosine-containing DNA fragments or unmodified cytosine-containing DNA fragments by determining the fraction or percent of 5-methylcytosine-binding protein bound or free DNA fragments, respectively, for each age-associated epigenetic marker; or alternatively, determining for each age-associated epigenetic marker, the ratio of 5-methylcytosine-containing DNA fragments to unmodified cytosine-containing DNA fragments by determining the ratio of number or concentration of 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-bound DNA fragments to the number or concentration of 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-free DNA fragments; or alternatively, determining for each age-associated epigenetic marker, the ratio of unmodified cytosine-containing DNA fragments to 5-methylcytosine-containing DNA fragments by determining the ratio of number or concentration of 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-free DNA fragments to the number or concentration of 5-methylcytosine-binding protein-bound DNA fragments for each age-associated epigenetic marker, thereby determining the methylation status.
 51. A method for screening whether an agent of interest can retard or accelerate aging process comprising: (a) obtaining a biological sample from a living organism, and optionally, culturing cells, tissue, or organ derived from a living organism; (b) predicting age or AMAR of the organism, following the method of claim 1 or 46, using organism appropriate age-associated epigenetic marker(s) such that the age-associated epigenetic marker(s) provided in claim 1 for a human subject may need to be substituted with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) for the organism being examined; (c) exposing the living organism or cultured living cells, tissue, or organ from the living organism of step (a) to an agent of interest in a single dose, multiple doses, or continuous doses; (d) obtaining a biological sample from the living organism or the cultured living cells, tissue, or organ of step (c); (e) predicting age or AMAR of the organism from the biological sample of step (d), following the method of claim 1 or 47, using organism appropriate age-associated epigenetic marker(s) such that the age-associated epigenetic marker(s) provided in claim 1 for a human subject may need to be substituted with age-associated epigenetic marker(s) for the organism being examined; (f) performing the same steps (a)-(e) on another individual from the same organism or a duplicate cultured living cells, tissue, or organ from the same individual or organism but not treated with any agent of interest or treated with a placebo at step (c); and g) comparing, for biological sample of the same predicted age or AMAR in step (b), the predicted age or AMAR from step (e) with the predicted age or AMAR from step (f), such that a lower value or range of values for step (e) indicates that an agent of interest can retard an aging process whereas a higher value or range of values indicates an agent of interest can accelerate aging process, thereby screening whether an agent of interest can retard or accelerate aging process. 